diff --git a/src/aca_model/agent/labor_market.py b/src/aca_model/agent/labor_market.py
index 1421e9e..5665d92 100644
--- a/src/aca_model/agent/labor_market.py
+++ b/src/aca_model/agent/labor_market.py
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@
 """
 
 import jax.numpy as jnp
+import numpy as np
 from lcm import categorical
 from lcm.typing import (
     ContinuousState,
@@ -39,12 +40,16 @@ class SpousalIncome:
     married_has_inc: ScalarInt
 
 
-HOURS_VALUES = jnp.array([0.0, 1000.0, 1500.0, 2000.0, 2500.0])
+# Host array, not a module-level JAX array: a device array here would
+# reserve the GPU memory pool at import time in every process that imports
+# the model. It is converted to a device array at each indexing site, where
+# the value folds into the surrounding compiled function.
+HOURS_VALUES = np.array([0.0, 1000.0, 1500.0, 2000.0, 2500.0])
 
 
 def working_hours_value(labor_supply: DiscreteAction) -> FloatND:
     """Map labor supply choice to annual hours worked."""
-    return HOURS_VALUES[labor_supply]
+    return jnp.asarray(HOURS_VALUES)[labor_supply]
 
 
 def wage(
@@ -74,7 +79,7 @@ def income(
 
     income = wage * hours^(1 + exp) * int^(-exp)
     """
-    hours = HOURS_VALUES[labor_supply]
+    hours = jnp.asarray(HOURS_VALUES)[labor_supply]
     return jnp.where(
         hours > 0.0,
         wage
diff --git a/src/aca_model/agent/preferences.py b/src/aca_model/agent/preferences.py
index 381dec6..eeba5bd 100644
--- a/src/aca_model/agent/preferences.py
+++ b/src/aca_model/agent/preferences.py
@@ -7,7 +7,6 @@
 from lcm import categorical
 from lcm.typing import (
     Age,
-    BoolND,
     ContinuousAction,
     ContinuousState,
     DiscreteState,
@@ -19,6 +18,11 @@
 
 from aca_model.agent.labor_market import LaggedLaborSupply
 
+# Width of the smooth leisure floor, as a fraction of the time endowment. Small enough
+# that leisure equals `time_endowment - cost` wherever work costs sit well below the
+# endowment; it only bends the map near and beyond the endowment.
+_LEISURE_SMOOTHING_FRACTION = 0.01
+
 
 @categorical(ordered=False)
 class PrefType:
@@ -44,11 +48,6 @@ class BenchmarkPrefType:
     type_1: ScalarInt
 
 
-def positive_leisure(leisure: FloatND) -> BoolND:
-    """Return True where leisure is strictly positive."""
-    return leisure > 0
-
-
 def equivalence_scale(is_married: IntND, exponent: ScalarFloat) -> FloatND:
     """Return the equivalence scale for household size adjustment.
 
@@ -69,6 +68,22 @@ def fixed_cost_of_work(
     )
 
 
+def _smooth_leisure_floor(
+    leisure_available: FloatND, time_endowment: ScalarFloat
+) -> FloatND:
+    """Bend leisure to a strictly positive floor as work costs approach the endowment.
+
+    `softplus(x) = log(1 + e^x)` via `jnp.logaddexp(0, x)`, scaled by a small fraction
+    of the endowment. Where `leisure_available` is large relative to the smoothing width
+    the map reduces to `leisure_available` (bulk unchanged); as it falls to zero leisure
+    bends to `0⁺` — never negative, never a kinked clamp — so the CRRA aggregator never
+    receives a non-positive base. The smoothing width scales with the endowment, so the
+    map is scale-invariant.
+    """
+    smoothing = _LEISURE_SMOOTHING_FRACTION * time_endowment
+    return smoothing * jnp.logaddexp(0.0, leisure_available / smoothing)
+
+
 def leisure_canwork_retiree_or_nongroup(
     working_hours_value: FloatND,
     good_health: IntND,
@@ -94,7 +109,8 @@ def leisure_canwork_retiree_or_nongroup(
         0.0,
     )
 
-    return time_endowment - health_loss - work_loss
+    leisure_available = time_endowment - health_loss - work_loss
+    return _smooth_leisure_floor(leisure_available, time_endowment)
 
 
 def leisure_canwork_tied(
@@ -112,7 +128,8 @@ def leisure_canwork_tied(
     work_loss = jnp.where(
         working_hours_value > 0.0, working_hours_value + fixed_cost_of_work, 0.0
     )
-    return time_endowment - health_loss - work_loss
+    leisure_available = time_endowment - health_loss - work_loss
+    return _smooth_leisure_floor(leisure_available, time_endowment)
 
 
 def leisure_forcedout(
@@ -122,7 +139,8 @@ def leisure_forcedout(
 ) -> FloatND:
     """Compute leisure for forcedout regimes (no work)."""
     health_loss = jnp.where(good_health, 0.0, leisure_cost_of_bad_health)
-    return time_endowment - health_loss
+    leisure_available = time_endowment - health_loss
+    return _smooth_leisure_floor(leisure_available, time_endowment)
 
 
 def consumption_equiv(
diff --git a/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_nongroup.py b/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_nongroup.py
index 151929c..410ef6f 100644
--- a/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_nongroup.py
+++ b/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_nongroup.py
@@ -10,7 +10,6 @@
 from lcm.solvers import DCEGM
 from lcm.typing import Age, DiscreteAction, FloatND, Period
 
-from aca_model.agent import preferences
 from aca_model.agent.labor_market import LaborSupply
 from aca_model.baseline import health_insurance
 from aca_model.baseline.regimes._common import (
@@ -112,10 +111,6 @@ def build_regime(
         transition_func = _make_transition_forcedout(gets_mc, own)
 
     states = build_states(spec, grids)
-    # `borrowing_constraint` is broadcast from the model level.
-    constraints: dict = {}
-    if spec["canwork"] == "canwork":
-        constraints["positive_leisure"] = preferences.positive_leisure
 
     solver_kwargs: dict = {} if dcegm_solver is None else {"solver": dcegm_solver}
     return Regime(
@@ -129,6 +124,5 @@ def build_regime(
         ),
         actions=build_actions(spec, grids),
         functions=_build_functions(spec),
-        constraints=constraints,
         **solver_kwargs,
     )
diff --git a/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_retiree.py b/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_retiree.py
index 1dd054b..2c86376 100644
--- a/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_retiree.py
+++ b/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_retiree.py
@@ -11,7 +11,6 @@
 from lcm.solvers import DCEGM
 from lcm.typing import Age, BoolND, DiscreteAction, FloatND, Period
 
-from aca_model.agent import preferences
 from aca_model.agent.labor_market import LaborSupply
 from aca_model.baseline import health_insurance
 from aca_model.baseline.regimes._common import (
@@ -122,10 +121,6 @@ def build_regime(
         transition_func = _make_transition_forcedout(gets_mc, own, ng)
 
     states = build_states(spec, grids)
-    # `borrowing_constraint` is broadcast from the model level.
-    constraints: dict = {}
-    if spec["canwork"] == "canwork":
-        constraints["positive_leisure"] = preferences.positive_leisure
 
     solver_kwargs: dict = {} if dcegm_solver is None else {"solver": dcegm_solver}
     return Regime(
@@ -139,6 +134,5 @@ def build_regime(
         ),
         actions=build_actions(spec, grids),
         functions=_build_functions(spec),
-        constraints=constraints,
         **solver_kwargs,
     )
diff --git a/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_tied.py b/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_tied.py
index d7b66ad..b1f6f41 100644
--- a/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_tied.py
+++ b/src/aca_model/baseline/regimes/_tied.py
@@ -12,7 +12,6 @@
 from lcm.solvers import DCEGM
 from lcm.typing import Age, BoolND, DiscreteAction, FloatND, Period
 
-from aca_model.agent import preferences
 from aca_model.agent.labor_market import LaborSupply
 from aca_model.baseline import health_insurance
 from aca_model.baseline.regimes._common import (
@@ -105,7 +104,5 @@ def build_regime(
         ),
         actions=build_actions(spec, grids),
         functions=_build_functions(spec),
-        # `borrowing_constraint` is broadcast from the model level.
-        constraints={"positive_leisure": preferences.positive_leisure},
         **solver_kwargs,
     )
diff --git a/tests/test_labor_market.py b/tests/test_labor_market.py
index 18dcaa2..f26992a 100644
--- a/tests/test_labor_market.py
+++ b/tests/test_labor_market.py
@@ -2,11 +2,35 @@
 
 import jax.numpy as jnp
 import numpy as np
+import pytest
 
 from aca_model.agent import labor_market
 from aca_model.agent.labor_market import LaborSupply
 
 
+def test_hours_values_is_host_array_so_import_allocates_no_device_memory() -> None:
+    """`HOURS_VALUES` is a host (NumPy) array, not a device-pinned JAX array.
+
+    A module-level JAX array materializes on the default device the moment the
+    module is imported, reserving the GPU memory pool in every process that
+    imports the model — including the estimation orchestrator, which only
+    launches GPU worker ranks and must leave the devices free for them.
+    """
+    assert isinstance(labor_market.HOURS_VALUES, np.ndarray)
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize(
+    ("choice", "expected_hours"),
+    [(0, 0.0), (1, 1000.0), (2, 1500.0), (3, 2000.0), (4, 2500.0)],
+)
+def test_working_hours_value_maps_choice_to_annual_hours(
+    choice: int, expected_hours: float
+) -> None:
+    """Each labor-supply choice maps to its annual hours worked."""
+    result = labor_market.working_hours_value(jnp.asarray(choice, dtype=jnp.int32))
+    np.testing.assert_allclose(float(result), expected_hours)
+
+
 def test_wage_combines_age_health_profile_with_residual() -> None:
     """`wage = exp(log_ft_wage_mean[period, good_health] + log_ft_wage_std * res)`."""
     log_ft_wage_mean = jnp.array([[1.0, 2.0], [3.0, 4.0]])  # [period, good_health]
diff --git a/tests/test_model_components.py b/tests/test_model_components.py
index 733fecd..5caa981 100644
--- a/tests/test_model_components.py
+++ b/tests/test_model_components.py
@@ -67,6 +67,49 @@ def test_leisure_bad_health() -> None:
     assert jnp.isclose(result, 4500.0)
 
 
+def test_leisure_canwork_stays_positive_when_work_cost_meets_endowment() -> None:
+    """Leisure bends to a strictly positive floor when work costs reach the endowment.
+
+    Without a floor, leisure would be zero (or negative past the endowment) and feed a
+    non-positive base into the CRRA aggregator. The smooth floor keeps it clearly
+    positive.
+    """
+    result = preferences.leisure_canwork_retiree_or_nongroup(
+        working_hours_value=jnp.array(4500.0),
+        good_health=jnp.int32(1),
+        lagged_labor_supply=jnp.int32(1),
+        time_endowment=jnp.asarray(5000.0),
+        leisure_cost_of_bad_health=jnp.asarray(0.0),
+        fixed_cost_of_work=jnp.asarray(500.0),  # 4500 + 500 == 5000 == endowment
+        labor_force_reentry_cost=jnp.asarray(0.0),
+    )
+    assert result > 1.0
+
+
+def test_leisure_canwork_tied_decreases_smoothly_into_saturation() -> None:
+    """Past the endowment, more work cost still lowers leisure, never below zero.
+
+    A flat clamp or a raw `endowment - cost` would either pin leisure or drive it
+    negative; the smooth floor keeps it strictly positive and strictly decreasing.
+    """
+    common = {
+        "good_health": jnp.int32(1),
+        "time_endowment": jnp.asarray(5000.0),
+        "leisure_cost_of_bad_health": jnp.asarray(0.0),
+    }
+    at_endowment = preferences.leisure_canwork_tied(
+        working_hours_value=jnp.array(4500.0),
+        fixed_cost_of_work=jnp.asarray(500.0),  # cost == endowment
+        **common,
+    )
+    past_endowment = preferences.leisure_canwork_tied(
+        working_hours_value=jnp.array(4500.0),
+        fixed_cost_of_work=jnp.asarray(700.0),  # cost exceeds endowment by 200
+        **common,
+    )
+    assert at_endowment > past_endowment > 0.0
+
+
 def test_utility_positive_leisure() -> None:
     result = preferences.u_alive(
         consumption_equiv=jnp.array(10000.0),